> Marine Air Pollution: Bluewater Network

A single cargo ship coming into Vancouver, B.C.'s harbor can release as much pollution as 350,000 current model year cars in one hour, while 16 container ships in port produce as many smog-forming emissions as one million cars and a single port visit by a cruise ship generates the emissions of more than 12,400 cars. These ship smokestacks release toxic emissions that lead to acid rain, global climate change, and damaging health effects to communities situated near ports. The environmental impact is far greater than previously estimated, as a 2003 study has found that large ships generate 30 percent of global nitrogen emissions - twice the previous estimates of 14 percent.

Port communities suffer the most from the diesel exhaust emitted by ships, but this pollution travels hundreds of miles inland depending on wind and weather patterns. Despite the fact that ships are more energy efficient than other forms of commercial transportation, marine engines operate on extremely dirty fuels. Most large ships use the dirtiest and least expensive diesel available. Known as bunker oil, this fuel is the collection of residue from the production of higher grade fuels and contains significant concentrations of toxic compounds banned from use in most other industrial and consumer applications. It is thick as asphalt and must be heated to be burned.

To compound the problem, engines on ocean-going ships are currently not required to meet the same strict air pollution controls as cars and trucks are required to do. These engines are inadequately regulated in Canada and the international shipping treaty on shipping pollution that entered into force in May 2005 provides minimal benefits as the standards simply codify the status quo. This is true due to the weakness of the standards, the growth of global shipping, and the emissions reductions being gained in other mobile source categories.

As more consumer goods are imported from Asia, cargo shipping is expected to double or even triple by 2020 - especially in high traffic ports such as Oakland, Los Angeles and New York.

Source: BlueWater Network, www.bluewater.com

> Diesel Pollutants: Air Resources Board Fact Sheet

Diesel engines emit a complex mixture of gaseous and solid air pollutants. The solid components of diesel exhaust are known as diesel PM. Diesel PM includes carbon particles or "soot" that can be visible in exhaust streams, and particles too small to be seen by the naked eye. In 1998, ARB identified diesel PM as a toxic air contaminant based on its potential to cause cancer. Health studies also show that particulate matter (of which diesel PM is a component) can contribute to premature death, worsen asthma symptoms and cause other health problems. ARB has made it a top priority to reduce diesel.

Source: Air Resources Board Fact Sheet

> Air Pollution from Marine Vessels a Concern in Europe

It has been estimated that about 90 percent of the total SO2 and NOx emissions from ships in the North Sea, including the English Channel, originates from a zone of approximately 50 nautical miles (approximately 90 kilometers) from the coast line. International shipping within a distance of 100 nautical miles from the seaboard was estimated to be a source of 97 percent of the total of these emissions in the North Sea (Tsyro & Berge, 1997).

SO2 and NOx can become converted into sulphate and nitrate particles, which are very small and among the more frequent of airborne particles. Exposure to fine particles (PM) is associated with increased mortality (especially from cardio-vascular and cardio-pulmonary diseases) and morbidity. According to the European Environment Agency, up to 45 per cent of Europe's urban populations are exposed to PM10 levels exceeding the forthcoming EU standards (EEA, 2004). It has been estimated that exposure to fine particulate matter in outdoor air leads to about 100,000 deaths (and 725,000 years of life lost) annually in Europe (WHO, 2002), and that the effect of PM on life expectancy may be in the order of one to two years (WHO, 2003). Ship emissions are estimated to contribute between twenty and thirty per cent to the air concentrations of secondary inorganic particles in most coastal areas (CEC, 2002b).

Shipping emissions contribute notably to the formation of ground-level ozone, especially in the Mediterranean region, where increased concentrations resulting from ships' NOx emissions amount to 16-20 mg/m3 (Jonson et al, 2000). The high concentrations of ozone in the Mediterranean region do not only affect human health and crop yields, but also pose a threat to the region's important tourist industry.

Emissions from ships also contribute to global warming. An estimate of radiative forcing due to CO2 emissions from ships indicates that ships may account for 1.8 percent of global emissions. Moreover, according to a study made for the IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee, the radiative forcing resulting from increased levels of ground-level ozone due to NOx from international shipping "are highly likely to produce positive forcing effects that will contribute to global warming and that could be in the same range as (or larger than) direct forcing from CO2" (Henningsen, 2000).

According to a recent report, the burning of marine heavy fuel oil gives rise to high emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (Ahlbom & Duus, 2003). Because of its high content of polycyclic aromatics, this type of fuel is classified as carcinogenic and harmful to the environment.

If compared to a heavy diesel-driven truck, the PAH emissions from a ship using marine heavy fuel oil are about 30 times higher per energy unit. This means that if the energy output of a ship's engine is 40 times that of a truck engine, the PAH-emissions from a fairly large vessel entering port will correspond to those from about 1200 heavy trucks.

Source: Air Pollution From Ships A Briefing Document by: The European Environmental Bureau (EEB), The European Federation for Transport and Environment (T&E), Seas At Risk (SAR), The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, Updated November 2004

> NOx Emissions Projections for Europe

According to this estimate the NOx emissions from international shipping around Europe will by 2020 have surpassed the emissions from all land-based sources in the 25 EU member states combined.

Source: Helsinki Commission (website:http://www.helcom.fi/shipping/emissions/en_GB/emisions/)

> BMT's Report on Marine Vessel Air Emissions

It has been shown that parts of western Canada and the United States have experienced adverse effects of air pollution from both local sources and longer range, (including transboundary), transport of pollutants. Health studies on air quality report that such air pollution contributes to premature deaths and numerous health-related problems, such as cardiovascular ailments and respiratory distress. Sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) can also create other problems such as acid rain, reduced productivity of vegetation, building soiling and corrosion. These problems adversely affect natural ecosystems, and economic activities related to agriculture and forestry. Emissions from diesel engines are a major source of these contaminants which are the main components of smog, a noxious mixture of air pollutants that can often be seen as a haze in the air, especially over urban centres.

Marine vessel air emissions (including emissions from ocean-going vessels, ferries, tugboats, etc.) are not as stringently regulated as other sources, although regulations are presently being drafted to adopt international standards in Canada. Nevertheless, other sectors are more highly regulated: progressively more stringent controls are being applied, by means of regulations, to on-road vehicles, and stringent regulations are also proposed for off-road diesel engines that are found in construction, mining, farming, and forestry machines. As emissions from these other sectors decrease, emissions from marine vessels are projected to become a proportionally greater source of the remaining pollution inventory. In the Georgia Basin/Puget Sound (GB/PS) air shed, marine vessel air emissions are also projected to increase significantly in an absolute sense, as a result of strong growth in trade volumes. Marine vessels emit large quantities of SOx, NOx, and PM. The annual emissions from shipping in the GB/PS international air shed have been estimated at 24,500 tonnes of SOx, 86,500 tonnes of NOx, and 4,000 tonnes of PM.

If emissions from land-based sources continue to fall in line with planned regulations and emissions from shipping remains unchanged, shipping-related emissions are projected to account for an unprecedented portion of the local emission inventory. For example, under a business as usual scenario with no regulations on fuel or technological improvements, it is estimated that marine vessels will contribute 37% of SOx, 22% of NOx, and 16% of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) to the total emission inventory in the Lower Fraser Valley by 2015. At the same time, there is increasing evidence that these contaminants - even at today's comparatively low levels - continue to cause significant adverse human health impacts. As such, emissions from shipping are a source of concern for public health.

Source: MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR MARINE VESSEL AIR EMISSIONS March, 2005, BMT FLEET TECHNOLOGY LIMITED (submitted to Environment Canada) (http://www.westcoastcollaborative.org/files/sectormarine/Final%20BMT%20Management%20Options%20Report.pdf)

> Marine Vessels a Source of Smog in Georgia Basin and Puget Sound

Marine vessels are a large and growing source of smog-forming emissions in the Georgia Basin and Puget Sound. Unless significant action is taken to reduce emissions from marine vessels, it is projected that marine vessels will exceed light duty vehicles as the largest source of smog-forming contaminants in the Lower Fraser Valley after 2010.

Source: Environment Canada website: Marine Vessel and Port Emission Reductions Initiative

> Marine Vessel Traffic in Canada

Standards have been set for marine engines installed in existing or new vessels after January 1, 2000. There are currently no standards for engines installed in vessels built prior to 2000.

The following figures show date of manufacture of ships that travelled in Canadian waters in 2004 and 2005. Figure 1 shows that 73% of all vessels travelling in Canadian waters were built prior to 2000 and that the majority of those vessels were built after the late 1970's.

Figure 2 shows the age distribution of Canadian flagged vessels travelling in Canadian waters during the same period. This distribution shows that 83% of all Canadian flagged ships were built prior to 2000; however, the age distribution is more evenly spread out between years indicating that in general Canadian flagged ships are older and are kept in service longer.

Source: Transport Canada

> Marine Vessel Air Emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley

Clean air is an important factor in the health of people living and working in the coastal areas of British Columbia. Recent studies show that ocean going vessels are a primary source of pollutants that produce ozone and smog, such as oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, and particulate matter, all of which contribute to human health problems. Clean air and clear visibility are also important to British Columbia's valuable tourism industry. If growth predictions are accurate, and no reduction measures are taken, marine vessel emissions could be the largest contributor to regional air pollution in the greater Vancouver area by 2015.

Ocean-going vessels are the predominant contributor to emissions of NOx, SOx, particulate matter and greenhouse gases, accounting for 58%, 95%, 82% and 58% of the total marine vessel emissions, respectively. Ocean-going vessels contribute 14% to the estimated marine totals for CO and VOC.

Harbour vessels contribute 28% and 27% to NOx and GHG totals, and 10% or less to all other contaminant totals. Workboats and tugboats are the dominant category compared to charter vessels. Ferries contribute between 2% and 13% to each contaminant, including 13% of NOx, 12% of greenhouse gases, and 6% of CO. Of the total ferry operations, BC Ferries are the most significant contributor to emissions.

Source: MARINE VESSEL AIR EMISSIONS IN THE LOWER FRASER VALLEY FOR THE YEAR 2000 Prepared for: Policy and Planning Department, Greater Vancouver Regional District, April 30, 2002, File: 401-0989

> Health Risks of Diesel Exhaust: Canadian Ports Magazine

Emissions from diesel engines contribute to unhealthy levels of fine particles and ozone (or "smog") and air toxics. Fine particles have been associated with an increased risk of premature death, hospital admissions for heart and lung disease, increased adverse respiratory symptoms such as asthma, and other adverse effects. Long-term exposure to diesel exhaust may pose a lung cancer hazard to humans.

Source: Canadian Ports Magazine

> Environment Canada's Listed Health Risks of Diesel Exhaust

PM10 is listed on Schedule 1 of CEPA 1999:
Cardio-pulmonary effects
Adverse health effects of PM2.5 as low as 3 µg/m3
Diesel PM is a suspected carcinogen
Diesel PM is top air toxic of concern

Source: Environment Canada

> Health Hazards of Air Pollution for Children

Exposure to air pollution poses a variety of health hazards to children, from conception to adolescence. These include:

• Respiratory morbidity such as acute respiratory infections and asthma
• Poor pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight
• Respiratory mortality
• Developmental disorders
• Cancer
• Other disorders

Source: World Health Organization (http://www.euro.who.int/main/WHO/Home/TopPage)

> Air Pollution the Largest Single Environment-Related Cause of Ill Health Among Children

In most countries, air pollution is the largest single environment-related cause of ill health among children. In other countries it is the second, after the scarcity of safe water. Many air pollution-related deaths and illnesses in children are proved to be due to respiratory infections. Studies conducted in Europe report that the incidence of acute respiratory infections is up to 50% higher in children living in the most polluted areas than in those in the least polluted areas.

Exposure to ambient air pollution also causes increases in the incidence of upper and lower respiratory symptoms, many of which are symptoms of infection. The long-term effects of air pollution and other environmental hazards highlight the need to target children not only to preserve their lives now but also to ensure the future of society by keeping adults in good health.

In children, outdoor air pollution is associated with acute lower respiratory tract infections, asthma, low birth weight, and impaired lung function. The most significant health effects of outdoor air pollution are associated with particulate matter (PM). Up to 13,000 deaths per year among children aged 0-4 years are attributed to PM outdoor air pollution in the European Region.

Source: World Health Organization

> Air Pollution Affects Lung Development and Lung Capacity in Children

The special vulnerability of children to exposure to air pollution is related to several differences between children and adults. The ongoing process of lung growth and development, incomplete metabolic systems, immature host defenses, high rates of infection by respiratory pathogens and activity patterns specific to children can lead to higher exposure to air pollution and higher doses of pollutants reaching the lungs. The efficiency of detoxification systems exhibit a time dependent pattern during prenatal and postnatal lung development that in part accounts for the increased susceptibility of young children to pollutants at critical points in time. The review highlights concern about the longer-term implications of lung injury during childhood. Exposure of the developing lung to air pollution reduces the maximal functional capacity achieved as the child enters adulthood, and thus reduces the functional reserve.

A review of the evidence on adverse effects of ambient air pollution on several types of pregnancy outcome: childhood mortality, birth weight, premature birth, intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) and birth defects showed overall, that there is evidence implicating air pollution in adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes.

Source: Effects of Air Pollution on Children's Health and Development: A Review of the Evidence, World Health Organization Special Programme on Health and Environment, European Centre for Environment and Health Bonn Office, 2005

> IPCC Report Cites Burning Fossil Fuels Contributes to Climate Change

In February, 2007, the IPCC released a summary of the contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report. This most recent research from the IPCC concludes that global warming is "unequivocal" and that human activity is the main driver of this warming, asserting with near certainty - more than 90 percent confidence - that carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases from human activities have been the main causes of warming since 1950.

Carbon dioxide is the main contributor to climate change, especially through the burning of fossil fuels. However, nitrous oxide, released by chemical fertilizers and burning fossil fuels, has a global warming potential 310 times that of carbon dioxide. " (our emphasis added)

Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. This is an advance since the TAR's conclusion that "most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations". Discernible human influences now extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental-average temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns.

For the next two decades a warming of about 0.2°C per decade is projected for a range of SRES emission scenarios. Continued greenhouse gas emissions at or above current rates would cause further warming and induce many changes in the global climate system during the 21st century that would very likely be larger than those observed during the 20th century.

Source: CLIMATE CHANGE REPORT IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis February 2007. (David Suzuki Foundation website: http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Climate_Change/Science/IPCC/)